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• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:00+00:00 All that data : Personal identity, Bias and Fairness 1 plain 2023-01-04T08:48:00+00:00

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  Personal identity

  Learning to use technology to better certain outcomes in education also means compensating for the aspects of education and well being that technology could potentially undermine. The problem with data centric systems is that numbers and performance metrics can supersede other considerations. We could get so carried away by the benefits of personalisation that the process of learning itself takes a back seat.
  
  Ethical guidelines for educators reminds us to consider the people, their identity, integrity, and dignity : “approach people with respect of their intrinsic value and not as a data object or a means-to-an-end”. The human-centric approach to AI is to keep in mind that that people are not just the data; that the label that a software might give students to personalise learning pathways or to split them into groups is not their real identity.
  
  https://mit-serc.pubpub.org/pub/identity-advertising-and-algorithmic-targeting#n0mak79jtsj https://mit-serc.pubpub.org/pub/identity-advertising-and-algorithmic-targeting#n0mak79jtsj https://mit-serc.pubpub.org/pub/identity-advertising-and-algorithmic-targeting#n0mak79jts

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  ACTIVITY
  
  Adapted from Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.”,  licensed under CC BY NC 4.0.(Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021)
   

  Feminist, Nerd, Alcoholic? Meeting Your “Algorithmic Self”

  Google and Facebookprovide “Ad Preferences” pages that allow users to see their explicitly and implicitly inferred demographics and interests. These are glimpses of what Kyle Jarrett and John Cheney-Lippold call our “algorithmic identities.”

  

  
  Access your “Ad Settings” Profile on Google, Facebook or Instagram. Or if you regularly use another platform, try finding out if they have ad settings and if you can access them.
  Questions for discussion:
  • What does your “algorithmic identity” look like? Does it reflect your demographics and interests?
  • How much do these Ad Preference profiles really tell us about algorithmic targeting? Do you feel like you know more about targeting processes after looking at your preferences?
  • These interest categories change frequently and are recursive: an ad interest you are associated with can determine what ad interest you’ll be categorized with next. What can this tell us about profiling?
  • Do you agree with scholars such as Cheney-Lippold and Bassett that there is an overreduction of identity here? Why is this an ethical concern?
  • Ethically, does it matter more if these profiles get your interests “right” or “wrong”?
  • Does your gender and race play a part in how you are labelled? What are the ethical implications of this?

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  Frequently, the categories created by machine learning models might not even correspond to recognisable attributes or social categories that humans would understand, let alone identify with. For example, the category “likes math” might be recognisable to the user. The category “Clicked a resource shown in the screen” would be less significant for a human but important for a adaptive learning system  when making inferences about student preferences. (Milano, S., Taddeo, M., Floridi, L. Recommender systems and their ethical challenges, AI & Soc 35, 957–967, 2020).
  
  While using a data based system could be beneficial for a number of things, educators will need to check and reorient ourselves  and the students regularly towards the human values that sustain society, ensure wellbeing and foster true learning.
   

  Bias and Fairness

  
  MIT Datascience : "Bias in Data Science
  The goal of ML is to create models that encode appropriate
  generalizations from data sets. Two major factors contribute
  to the generalization (or model) that an ML algorithm
  will generate from a data set. The first is the data set the
  algorithm is run on. If the data set is not representative of
  the population, then the model the algorithm generates
  won’t be accurate. For example, earlier we developed a regression
  model that predicted the likelihood that an individual
  will develop Type 2 diabetes based on his BMI. This
  model was generated from a data set of American white
  males. As a consequence, this model is unlikely to be accurate
  if used to predict the likelihood of diabetes for females
  or for males of different race or ethnic backgrounds. The
  term sample bias describes how the process used to select
  a data set can introduce biases into later analysis, be it a
  statistical analysis or the generation of predictive models
  using ML.
  144 Chapter 4
  The second factor that affects the model generated
  from a data set is the choice of ML algorithm. There are
  many different ML algorithms, and each one encodes a
  different way to generalize from a data set. The type of
  generalization an algorithm encodes is known as the learning
  bias (or sometimes the modeling or selection bias) of the
  algorithm. For example, a linear-regression algorithm encodes
  a linear generalization from the data and as a result
  ignores nonlinear relationships that may fit the data more
  closely. Bias is normally understood as a bad thing. For
  example, the sampling bias is a bias that a data scientist
  will try to avoid. However, without a learning bias there
  can be no learning, and the algorithm will only be able to
  memorize the data.
  However, because ML algorithms are biased to look
  for different types of patterns, and because there is no one
  learning bias across all situations, there is no one best ML
  algorithm. In fact, a theorem known as the “no free lunch
  theorem” (Wolpert and Macready 1997) states that there
  is no one best ML algorithm that on average outperforms
  all other algorithms across all possible data sets. So the
  modeling phase of the CRISP-DM process normally involves
  building multiple models using different algorithms
  and comparing the models to identify which algorithm
  generates the best model. In effect, these experiments are
  testing which learning bias on average produces the best
  models for the given data set and task."
  
  
  "Following Yao and Huang (2017), Farnadi
  et al. (2018) also identify the two primary sources of
  bias in recommender systems with two problematic patterns
  of data collection, namely observation bias, which results
  from feedback loops generated by the system’s recommendations
  to specific groups of users, and population imbalance,
  where the data available to the system reflect existing social
  patterns expressing bias towards some groups. They propose
  a probabilistic programming approach to mitigate the system’s
  bias against protected social groups." Milano, S., Taddeo, M., Floridi, L. Recommender systems and their ethical challenges, AI & Soc 35, 957–967, 2020
  
  "Our historical examples of the relevant outcomes will almost
  always reflect historical prejudices against certain social groups, prevailing cultural
  stereotypes, and existing demographic inequalities. And finding patterns in these
  data will often mean replicating these very same dynamics."FML
  
  "There’s a more traditional use of the term bias in statistics and machine learning.
  Suppose that Amazon’s estimates of delivery dates/times were consistently too
  early by a few hours. This would be a case of statistical bias. A statistical estimator
  is said to be biased if its expected or average value differs from the true value that
  it aims to estimate. Statistical bias is a fundamental concept in statistics, and there
  is a rich set of established techniques for analyzing and avoiding it.......Is our goal to faithfully reflect the data? Or do we have
  an obligation to question the data, and to design our systems to conform to some
  notion of equitable behavior, regardless of whether or not that’s supported by the
  data currently available to us? These perspectives are often in tension, and the
  difference between them will become clearer when we delve into stages of machine
  learning" FML
  
  "One area where machine learning practitioners often have to define new categories is in defining the target variable.8 This is the outcome that we’re trying to
  predict – will the defendant recidivate if released on bail? Will the candidate be a
  good employee if hired? And so on.
  Biases in the training set’s target variable are especially critical, because they
  are guaranteed to bias the predictions (not necessarily so with other attributes).
  But the target variable is arguably the hardest from a measurement standpoint,
  because it is often a construct that is made up for the purposes of the problem
  at hand rather than one that is widely understood and measured. For example,
  “creditworthiness” is a construct that was created in the context of the problem of
  how to successfully extend credit to consumers;8
  it is not an intrinsic property that
  people either possess or lack.If our target variable is the idea of a “good employee”, we might use performance review scores to quantify it. This means that our data inherits any biases
  present in managers’ evaluations of their reports. Another example: the use of
  computer vision to automatically rank people’s physical attractiveness.9, 10 The
  training data consists of human evaluation of attractiveness, and, unsurprisingly,
  all these classifiers showed a preference for lighter skin." FML
  
  "When we go from individual images to datasets of images, we introduce another
  layer of potential biases. Consider the image datasets that are used to train today’s
  computer vision systems for tasks such as object recognition. If these datasets
  were representative samples of an underlying visual world, we might expect that
  a computer vision system trained on one such dataset would do well on another
  dataset. But in reality, we observe a big drop in accuracy when we train and test
  on different datasets.15 This shows that these datasets are biased relative to each
  other in a statistical sense, and is a good starting point for investigating whether
  these biases include cultural stereotypes." FML
  
  "Predictive models trained with supervised learning methods are often good
  at calibration: ensuring that the model’s prediction subsumes all features in the
  data for the purpose of predicting the outcome. By contrast, human intuition is
  notoriously poor at accounting for priors, and this is a major reason that statistical
  predictions perform better in a wide variety of settings. But calibration also means
  that by default, we should expect our models to faithfully reflect disparities found
  in the input data.
  Here’s another way to think about it. Some patterns in the training data (smoking is associated with cancer) represent knowledge that we wish to mine using
  machine learning, while other patterns (girls like pink and boys like blue) represent
  stereotypes that we might wish to avoid learning. But learning algorithms have
  no general way to distinguish between these two types of patterns, because they
  are the result of social norms and moral judgments. Absent specific intervention,
  machine learning will extract stereotypes, including incorrect and harmful ones, in
  the same way that it extracts knowledge."
  
  "Finally, it’s also possible for the learning step to introduce demographic disparities that aren’t in the training data. The most common reason for this is the
  sample size disparity. If we construct our training set by sampling uniformly from
  the training data, then by definition we’ll have fewer data points about minorities.
  Of course, machine learning works better when there’s more data, so it will work
  less well for members of minority groups, assuming that members of the majority
  and minority groups are systematically different in terms of the prediction task.23
  Worse, in many settings minority groups are underrepresented relative to
  population statistics. For example, minority groups are underrepresented in the
  tech industry. Different groups might also adopt technology at different rates,
  which might skew datasets assembled form social media. If training sets are drawn
  from these unrepresentative contexts, there will be even fewer training points from
  minority individuals. For example, many products that incorporate face-detection
  technology have been reported to have trouble with non-Caucasian faces, and it’s
  easy to guess why.23
  When we develop machine-learning models, we typically only test their overall
  accuracy; so a “5% error” statistic might hide the fact that a model performs
  terribly for a minority group. Reporting accuracy rates by group will help alert us
  to problems like the above example. In the next chapter, we’ll look at metrics that
  quantify the error-rate disparity between groups." FML
  
  "There’s one application of machine learning where we find especially high
  error rates for minority groups: anomaly detection. This is the idea of detecting
  behavior that deviates from the norm as evidence of abuse against a system. A
  good example is the Nymwars controversy, where Google, Facebook, and other tech
  companies aimed to block users who used uncommon (hence, presumably fake)
  names.
  Further, suppose that in some cultures, most people receive names from a small
  set of names, whereas in other cultures, names might be more diverse, and it might
  be common for names to be unique. For users in the latter culture, a popular name
  12
  would be more likely to be fake. In other words, the same feature that constitutes
  evidence towards a prediction in one group might constitute evidence against the
  prediction for another group.23
  If we’re not careful, learning algorithms will generalize based on the majority
  culture, leading to a high error rate for minority groups. This is because of the
  desire to avoid overfitting, that is, picking up patterns that arise due to random
  noise rather than true differences. One way to avoid this is to explicitly model
  the differences between groups, although there are both technical and ethical
  challenges associated with this, as we’ll show in later chapters"
  
  "Most attempts to “debias” machine learning in the current research
  literature assume simplistic mathematical systems, often ignoring the effect of
  algorithmic interventions on individuals and on the long-term state of society"FML
  
  "Despite these important limitations, there are reasons to be cautiously optimistic
  about fairness and machine learning. First, data-driven decision-making has
  the potential to be more transparent compared to human decision-making. It
  forces us to articulate our decision-making objectives and enables us to clearly
  understand the tradeoffs between desiderata. However, there are challenges to
  overcome to achieve this potential for transparency. One challenge is improving the
  interpretability and explainability of modern machine learning methods, which is
  a topic of vigorous ongoing research. Another challenge is the proprietary nature
  of datasets and systems that are crucial to an informed public debate on this topic.
  Many commentators have called for a change in the status quo.42
  Second, effective interventions do exist in many machine learning applications,
  especially in natural-language processing and computer vision. Tasks in these
  domains (say, transcribing speech) are subject to less inherent uncertainty than
  traditional decision-making (say, predicting if a loan applicant will repay), removing
  some of the statistical constraints that we’ll study in Chapter 3.
  Our final and most important reason for optimism is that the turn to automated
  decision-making and machine learning offers an opportunity to reconnect with the
  moral foundations of fairness. Algorithms force us to be explicit about what we
  want to achieve with decision-making. And it’s far more difficult to paper over our
  poorly specified or true intentions when we have to state these objectives formally.
  In this way, machine learning has the potential to help us debate the fairness of
  different policies and decision-making procedures more effectively."
  
  Legitimacy
  
  legitimacy — whether it
  is fair to deploy such a system at all. whether it is morally justifiable to use machine learning or automated methods at all . FML
  
  "Machine learning is not a replacement for _human_ decision making : While it’s true that machine learning models might be difficult for people
  to understand, humans are black boxes, too. And while there can be systematic
  bias in machine learning models, they are often demonstrably less biased than
  humans.
  We reject this analogy of machine learning to human decision making. By
  understanding why it fails and which analogies are more appropriate, we’ll develop
  a better appreciation for what makes machine learning uniquely dangerous as a
  way of making high-stakes decisions.....As Katherine Strandburg has argued, “[r]eason giving is a core
  requirement in conventional decision systems precisely because human decision
  makers are inscrutable and prone to bias and error, not because of any expectation
  that they will, or even can, provide accurate and detailed descriptions of their
  thought processes”.2
  In analogizing machine learning to bureaucratic — rather than individual —
  decision making, we can better appreciate the source of some of the concerns about
  machine learning. When it is used in high-stakes domains, it undermines the kinds
  of protections that we often put in place to ensure that bureaucracies are engaged
  in well-executed and well-justified decision making" FML
  
  "This principle is premised on the belief that people are entitled to similar
  decisions unless there are reasons to treat them differently (we’ll soon address
  what determines if these are good reasons). Consistency is especially important for
  consequential decisions. Inconsistency is also problematic when it prevents people
  from developing effective life plans based on expectations about the decisionmaking systems they must navigate in order to obtain desirable resources and
  opportunities.57 Thus, inconsistent decision making is unfair both because it might
  result in unjustified differential treatment of similar individuals and also because
  it is a threat to individual autonomy by preventing people from making effective
  decisions about how best to pursue their life goals.
  The second view of arbitrariness is getting at a deeper concern: are there good
  reasons — or any reasons — why the decision-making scheme looks the way that
  it does? For example, if a coach picks a track team based on the color of runners’
  sneakers, but does so consistently, it is still arbitrary because the criterion lacks a
  valid basis. It does not help advance the decision maker’s goals (e.g., assembling a
  team of runners that will win the upcoming meet).
  Arbitrariness, from this perspective, is problematic because it undermines a
  bedrock justification for the chosen decision-making scheme: that it actually helps
  to advance the goals of the decision maker. If the decision-making scheme does
  nothing to serve these goals, then there is no justified reason to have settled on
  that decision-making scheme — and to treat people accordingly. When desirable
  resources and opportunities are allocated arbitrarily, it needlessly subjects individuals to different decisions, despite the fact that all individuals may have equal
  interest in these resources and opportunities.....Arbitrary decision making fails to respect the gravity of these decisions and
  shows a lack of respect for the people subject to them. Even if we accept that we
  cannot dictate the goals of institutions, we still object to giving them complete
  freedom to treat people however they like. When the stakes are sufficiently high,
  decision makers bear some burden for justifying their decision-making schemes
  out of respect for the interests of people affected by these decisions. The fact that
  people might try their luck with other decision makers in the same domain (e.g.,
  another employer, lender, or admission officer) may do little to modulate these
  expectations."FML
  
  Teacher in loop
  "Automation requires that an institution determine in advance all of
  the criteria that a decision-making scheme will take into account; there is no room
  to consider the relevance of additional details that might not have been considered
  or anticipated at the time that the software was developed.
  Automated decision-making is thus likely to be much more brittle than decisionmaking that involves manual review because it limits the opportunity for decision
  subjects to introduce information into the decision-making process. People are
  confined to providing evidence that corresponds to a pre-established field in the
  software. Such constraints can result in absurd situations in which the strict
  application of decision-making rules leads to outcomes that are directly counter to
  the goals behind these rules. New evidence that would immediately reverse the
  assessment of a human decision maker may have no place in automated decision
  making. Discretion is valuable in these cases because humans are often able to
  reflect on the relevance of additional information to the decision at hand and the
  underlying goal that such decisions are meant to serve. In effect, human review
  leaves room to expand the criteria under consideration and to reflect on when the
  mechanical application of the rules fails to serve their intended purpose" FML
  
  "Decision makers might have a pre-existing but informal process for making decisions, and they might like to automate it. In this case, machine learning (or other
  statistical techniques) might be employed to “predict” how a human would make
  a decision, given certain attributes or criteria. The goal isn’t necessarily to perfectly
  recover the specific weight that past decision makers had implicitly assigned to
  different criteria, but rather to ensure that the model produces a similar set of
  decisions to the humans. An educational institution might want to automate the
  process of grading essays, and it might attempt to do that by relying on machine
  learning to learn to mimic teachers’ grades in the past.
  This form of automation might help to address concerns with arbitrariness in
  human decision making by formalizing and fixing a decision-making scheme similar to what humans might have been employing in the past. In this respect, machine
  learning might be desirable because it can help to smooth out any inconsistencies
  in the human decisions from which it has induced some decision-making rule.5
  Automation is a natural way to address concerns with arbitrariness understood as
  inconsistency.6
  A few decades ago, there was a popular approach to automation that relied
  on explicitly encoding the reasoning that humans relied on to make decisions.68
  This approach, called expert systems, failed for many reasons, including the fact
  that people aren’t always able to explain their own reasoning.69 Expert systems
  were eventually abandoned in favor of simply asking people to label examples
  and having learning algorithms discover how to best predict the label that humans
  would assign. While this approach has proved powerful, it has its dangers.
  First, it may give the veneer of objective assessment to decision-making schchemes
  that simply automate the subjective judgment of humans......Specifically, humans will need to exercise discretion
  in specifying and identifying what counts as an example of the target.70 This
  approach runs the obvious risk of replicating and exaggerating any objectionable
  qualities of human decision making by learning from the bad examples set by
  humans.................;Even when the model is able to reliably predict the decisions that
  humans would make given any particular input, there is no guarantee that the
  model will have inherited all of the nuance and considerations that go into human
  decision-making. Worse, models might also learn to rely on criteria in ways that
  humans would find worrisome or objectionable, even if doing so still produces a
  similar set of decisions as humans would make.72
  In short, the use of machine learning to automate decisions previously performed by humans can be problematic both because it can end up being both too
  much like human decision makers and too different from them."FML
  
  "The final form of automation is one in which decision makers rely on machine
  learning to learn a decision-making rule or policy from data. This form of automation, which we’ll call predictive optimization, speaks directly to concerns with
  reasoned decision making. Note that neither of the first two forms of automation
  does so. Consistently executing a pre-existing policy via automation does not
  ensure that the policy itself is a reasoned one. Nor does relying on past human
  decisions to induce a decision-making rule guarantee that the basis for automated
  decision making will reflect reasoned judgments. In both cases, the decision making scheme will only be as reasoned as the formal policy or informal judgments
  whose execution is being automated.
  In contrast, predictive optimization tries to provide a more rigorous foundation
  for decision making by only relying on criteria to the extent that they demonstrably
  predict the outcome or quality of interest. When employed in this manner, machine
  learning seems to ensure reasoned decisions because the criteria that have been
  incorporated into the decision making scheme — and their particular weighing —
  are dictated by how well they predict the target. And so long as the chosen target
  is a good proxy for decision makers’ goals, relying on criteria that predict this
  target to make decisions would seem well reasoned because doing so will help to
  achieve decision makers’ goals." FML
  
  "First, the
  decision makers try to identify an explicit target for prediction which they view
  32
  as synonymous with their goal — or a reasonable proxy for it.7
  In a college
  admissions scenario, one goal might be scholastic achievement in college, and GPA
  might be a proxy for it. Once this is settled, the decision makers use data to discover
  which criteria to use and how to weight them in order to best predict the target.
  While they might exercise discretion in choosing the criteria to use, the weighting of
  these criteria would be dictated entirely by the goal of maximizing the accuracy of
  the resulting prediction of the chosen target. In other words, the decision-making
  rule would be learned from data, rather than set down according to decision
  makers’ subjective intuitions, expectations, and normative commitments....... The
  traditional approach makes it possible to express multiple goals and normative
  values through the choice of criteria and the weight assigned to them.
  In the machine learning approach, multiple goals and normative considerations
  need to be packed into the choice of target. ............One danger of the machine learning approach is that it leads to a narrow focus
  on the accuracy of the prediction. In other words, “good” decisions are those
  that accurately predict the target. But decision making might be “good” for other
  reasons: focusing on the right qualities or outcomes (in other words, the target
  is a good proxy for the goal), considering only relevant factors (in a sense we’ll
  discuss below), considering the full set of relevant factors, incorporating other
  normative principles (e.g., need, desert, etc.), or allowing people to understand and
  potentially contest the policy. Even a decision making process that is not terribly
  accurate might be seen as good if it has some of these other properties.75
  Does the fact that certain criteria reasonably accurately predict a target of
  interest mean that making decisions on the basis of these criteria is justified? While
  this might be perceived as preferable to decisions that were made on some basis
  that had been chosen for no particular reason at all, this treats the predictive value
  of any decision making criterion as the only quality that is of concern when asking
  whether a decision is justified. In the next few sections, we’ll explore situations
  where this answer might not suffice." FML
  
  Goliath: "Those who have this power
  have enormous power indeed. It’s the power to use
  discriminatory criteria to dole out different opportunities, access,
  eligibility, prices (mostly in terms of special offers and discounts),
  attention (both positive and negative), and exposure.
  This practice can get very intrusive. High-end rest"...."OVERSIGHT AND ACCOUNTABILITY
  In order for most societies to function, people must give others
  power over themselves.
  Ceding power is an inherently risky thing to do, and over the
  millennia we have developed a framework for protecting
  ourselves even as we do this: transparency, oversight, and
  accountability. If we know how people are using the power we
  give them, if we can assure ourselves that they’re not abusing it,
  and if we can punish them if they do, then we can more safely
  entrust them with power. This is the fundamental social contract
  of a democracy."
  
  Goliath : "If systemic imperfections are inevitable, we have to accept
  them—in laws, in government institutions, in corporations, in
  individuals, in society. We have to design systems that expect
  them and can work despite them. If something is going to fail or
  break, we need it to fail in a predictable way. That’s resilience.
  In systems design, resilience comes from a combination of
  elements: fault-tolerance, mitigation, redundancy, adaptability,
  recoverability, and survivability. It’"... "The problem is that all three branches of government have
  abrogated their responsibilities for oversight. The normal
  democratic process of taking a law, turning it into rules, and then
  turning those rules into procedures is open to interpretation
  every step of the way, and therefore requires oversight every step
  of the way. "
  
  MIT Datacience "This personalization
  can result in preferential treatment for some and marginalization of others. A clear example of this discrimination
  is differential pricing on websites, wherein some
  customers are charged more than other customers for the
  same product based on their customer profiles (Clifford
  2012).
  These profiles are constructed by integrating data
  from a number of different noisy and partial data sources,
  so the profiles can often be misleading about an individual.
  What is worse is that these marketing profiles are treated
  as products and are often sold to other companies, with
  the result that a negative marketing assessment of an individual
  can follow that individual across many domains. "
  
  MIT Datascience : "Two aspects of these marketing profiles
  make them particularly problematic. First, they are a
  black box, and, second, they are persistent. The black-box
  nature of these profiles is apparent when one considers
  that it is difficult for an individual to know what data are
  recorded about them, where and when the data were recorded,
  and how the decision processes that use these data
  work. "...."What is more, in the modern world data are often
  stored for a long time. So data recorded about an event in an individual’s life persists long after an event. "
  
  MIT "Furthermore, unless used very carefully, data science
  can actually perpetuate and reinforce prejudice. An argument
  is sometimes made that data science is objective:
  it is based on numbers, so it doesn’t encode or have the
  prejudicial views that affect human decisions. The truth
  is that data science algorithms perform in an amoral
  manner more than in an objective manner. Data science
  extracts patterns in data; however, if the data encode a
  prejudicial relationship in society, then the algorithm is
  likely to identify this pattern and base its outputs on the
  pattern. Indeed, the more consistent a prejudice is in a
  society, the stronger that prejudicial pattern will appear
  in the data about that society, and the more likely a data
  science algorithm will extract and replicate that pattern of
  prejudice. For example, a study carried out by academic researchers
  on the Google Online Advertising system found
  that the system showed an ad relating to a high-paying
  job more frequently to participants whose Google profile
  identified them as male compared to participants whose
  profile identified them as female (Datta, Tschantz, and
  Datta 2015)."
  
  MIT: "The anticipatory nature of predictive policing means
  that individuals may be treated differently not because of
  what they have done but because of data-driven inferences
  about what they might do. As a result, these types of systems
  may reinforce discriminatory practices by replicating
  the patterns in historic data and may create self-fulfilling
  prophecies."
  
  " the Charter of Fundamental
  Rights of the European Union prohibits discrimination
  based on any grounds, including race, color, ethnic
  or social origin, genetic features, sex, age, birth, disability,
  sexual orientation, religion or belief, property, membership
  in a national minority, and political or any other opinion
  (Charter 2000)."
  
  "Another downside to a field oriented around one-dimensional, competitive
  pursuit is that it becomes structurally difficult to address biases in models and
  classifiers. If a contestant takes steps to prevent dataset bias from propagating
  to their models, there will be an accuracy drop (because accuracy is judged on a
  biased dataset) and fewer people will pay attention to the work.
  As fairness issues in machine learning have gained prominence, fairnessfocused benchmarks datasets have proliferated, such as the Pilot Parliamentarians
  Benchmark for facial analysis319 and the Equity Evaluation Corpus for sentiment
  analysis.525 An advantage of this approach is that the scientific and cultural machinery of benchmark-oriented innovation can be repurposed for fairness research.
  A potential danger is Goodhart’s law, which states, in its broad form, “When a
  measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.” As we’ve emphasized
  in this book, fairness is multifaceted, and benchmarks can capture only narrow
  notions of fairness. While these can be useful diagnostics, if they are misconstrued as targets in their own right, then research that is focused on optimizing for these
  benchmarks may not result in fairness in a more substantive sense." FML
  
  
  "Properties of datasets that sometimes (but not always, and not in easily predictable ways) propagate downstream include imbalance, biases, stereotypes, and
  categorization. By imbalance we mean unequal representation of different groups.
  For example, Buolamwini and Gebru pointed out that two facial analysis benchmarks, IJB-A and Adience, overwhelmingly featured lighter-skinned subjects.319
  By dataset biases we mean incorrect associations, especially those corresponding
  to social and historical prejudices. For example, a dataset that measures arrests as
  a proxy for crime may reflect the biases of policing and discriminatory laws. By
  stereotypes we mean associations that accurately reflect a property of the world
  (or a specific culture at a specific point in time) that is thought to be the result of
  social and historical prejudice. For example, gender-occupation associations can
  be called stereotypes. By categorization we mean assigning discrete (often binary)
  labels to complex aspects of identity such as gender and race.10
  Representational harms occur when systems reinforce the subordination of
  some groups along the lines of identity. Representational harms could be downstream harms — such as when models apply offensive labels to people from
  some groups — but they could be inherent in the dataset. For example, ImageNet contains numerous slurs and offensive labels inherited from WordNet and
  pornographic images of people who did not consent to their inclusion in the
  dataset.506, 507
  While downstream and representational harms are two categories that have
  drawn a lot of attention and criticism, there are many other harms that often
  arise including the environmental cost of training models on unnecessarily large
  datasets508 and the erasure of the labor of subjects who contributed the data496 or
  the annotators who labeled it.466 For an overview of ethical concerns associated
  with datasets, see the survey by Paullada et al.509" FML
  
  "Conversely, one reason why there are fairness interventions applicable to production datasets but not scientific benchmarks is that interventions for production
  datasets can be strongly guided by an understanding of their downstream impacts
  in specific applications. Language and images, in particular, capture such a variety
  of cultural stereotypes that sanitizing all of them has proved infeasible.513 It is
  much easier to design interventions once we fix an application and the cultural
  context(s) in which it will be deployed. Different interventions may be applicable
  to the same dataset used in different applications. Unlike scientific benchmarks,
  dataset standardization is not necessary in engineering settings.
  In fact, the best locus of intervention even for dataset biases may be downstream
  of the data. For example, it has been observed for many years that online translation
  systems perpetuate gender stereotypes when translating gender-neutral pronouns.
  The text “O bir doctor. O bir hem¸sire.” may be translated from Turkish to English
  as “He is a doctor. She is a nurse.” Google Translate mitigated this by showing
  multiple translations in such cases.514, 515 Compared to data interventions, this has
  the benefit of making the potential bias (or, in some cases, erroneous translation)
  more visible to the user"FML
  
  ML fairness practitioners have identified collection and curation
  of representative data as the most common way to mitigate model
  biases [71],Kenneth Holstein, Jennifer Wortman Vaughan, Hal Daumé III, Miro Dudik, and
  Hanna Wallach. 2019. Improving fairness in machine learning systems: What
  do industry practitioners need?. In Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on
  Human Factors in Computing Systems. 1–16.
  
  Ethical guidelines on the use of artificial intelligence and data in teaching and learning for educators, European Commission, October 2022: Fairness relates to everyone being treated fairly in the social
  organisation. Clear processes are required so that all users have
  equal access to opportunity. These include equity, inclusion, nondiscrimination,
  and fair distribution of rights and responsibilities
  
  +
  
  3 Diversity, non-Discrimination and Fairness
  • Is the system accessible by everyone in the same way without any barriers?
  • Does the system provide appropriate interaction modes for learners with disabilities or special education needs? Is the AI
  system designed to treat learners respectfully adapting to their individual needs?
  • Is the user interface appropriate and accessible for the age level of the learners? Has the usability and user-experience
  been tested for the target age group?
  • Are there procedures in place to ensure that AI use will not lead to discrimination or unfair behaviour for all users?
  • Does the AI system documentation or its training process provide insight into potential bias in the data?
  • Are procedures in place to detect and deal with bias or perceived inequalities that may arise?
  4 Societal and Environmental Wellbeing
  • How does the AI system affect the social and emotional wellbeing of learners and teachers?
  • Does the AI system clearly signal that its social interaction is simulated and that it has no capacities of feeling or empathy?
  • Are students or their parents involved in the decision to use the AI system and support it?
  • Is data used to support teachers and school leaders to evaluate student wellbeing and if so, how is this being monitored?
  • Does use of the system create any harm or fear for individuals or for society?
  
  +
  
  Bias is an inclination of prejudice towards or
  against a person, object, or position. Bias can
  arise in many ways in AI systems. For example,
  in data-drive AI systems, such as those
  produced through machine learning, bias in data
  collection and training can result in an AI system
  demonstrating bias. In logic-based AI, such as
  rule-based systems, bias can arise due to how
  a knowledge engineer might view the rules that
  apply in a particular setting.
  It does not necessarily relate to human bias or
  human-driven data collection. It can arise, for
  example, through the limited contexts in which
  a system is used, in which case there is no
  opportunity to generalise it to other contexts.
  Bias can be good or bad, intentional or
  unintentional. In certain cases, bias can result in
  discriminatory and/or unfair outcomes (
  i.e. unfair bias).
  
  +
  
  Assumptions made by AI algorithms, could amplify
  existing biases embedded in current education
  practices i.e., bias pertaining to gender, race, culture,
  opportunity, or disability status.
  Bias can also arise due to online learning and
  adaptation through interaction. It can also arise
  through personalisation whereby users are presented
  with recommendations or information feeds that are
  tailored to the user’s tastes.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
   
• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00 Changing practices 1 How adaptive learning changes the classroom setup plain 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00

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  "Some of the most widespread education technologies
  did not demand much change in teachers’ practices.
  Digitized books were, after all, just books in a different
  medium. PCs and Chromebooks provided an electronic
  replacement for typewriters and paper and pencil, but
  didn’t immediately revolutionize the classroom.
  
  Adaptive learning does not fit easily
  into the status quo. Besides having
  to use a blended learning model, in
  which class-time is divvied up between
  traditional and electronic learning,
  teachers must be willing to let
  students progress at their own pace.
  They need to be comfortable letting
  software make real decisions about
  what students should learn
  next, and use quantitative data on
  student performance gathered by
  the software along with their own
  qualitative gut instincts. They need to
  be willing to trade the stand-in-thefront-
  of-the-room-and-lecture model,
  and instead provide more intimate,
  personalized instruction to whichever
  students aren’t on computers at that
  given moment.
  At Aspire ERES Academy in Oakland,
  CA, students spend up to a quarter of
  their day (50 to 80 minutes in total)
  using online tools, including ST Math
  and i-Ready. Like the Milpitas public
  schools, Aspire Public Schools, which
  operates 38 schools in California and
  Tennessee, saw adaptive technology
  as the most efficient way to achieve its
  goal of college-readiness for students
  in low-income populations. At ERES
  Academy, 99 percent of the students
  re English learners.
  
  Besides the obvious logistical
  challenges of a blended classroom,
  such as setting up rotations for
  students to cycle from teacher time
  to computer time, using adaptive
  learning tools requires other changes.
  Every Friday, second-grade teacher
  Mark Montero has 15 to 30 minute
  “data talks,” when the students talk
  about their progress and the problems
  they ran into using the adaptive
  products. Students who are doing
  particularly well are named “student
  coaches”. Montero makes a list of who
  is struggling with what, and assigns
  one of the coaches to spend the last
  10 minutes of their 30 minute rotation
  helping one of their classmates
  overcome the hurdle. “Kids need to
  discuss what they’re doing on the
  computer,” he says.
  Adaptive technology requires a
  different sort of trust between teacher
  and student. “You have to let go of
  some of the micromanagement,”
  says Montero." EdSurge, Decoding Adaptive, Pearson, London 2016
  
  "For example, if a teacher uses curriculum with a strict pacing guide – outlining
  every objective the teacher must teach each day of the school year with
  frequent assessments and without flexibility or exceptions – incorporating
  a tool with an adaptive sequence into the classroom will most likely be
  unsuccessful. Tools with adaptive sequences allow students to work on any skill
  at any time, the tool’s approach and the teacher’s approach are in conflict.
  
  How an adaptive tool is implemented in a school must align with how the tool
  was designed to be used, in order to be successful. For example, a tool with an
  adaptive sequence must be used in a learning environment that supports:
  • Students working at their own pace.
  • Students working on different content.
  • Students working on different skills that might be above or below the
  grade-level expectations.
  • Students working on skills in a unique order.
  • Students working on skills that are different to the skills that are being
  taught in the classroom at the same time
  
  "EdSurge, Decoding Adaptive, Pearson, London 2016
• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00 Different Intelligent Tutoring Systems 1 plain 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00

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  Cognitive Tutors 

  is a type of Intelligent Tutoring System which uses Cognitive Science to model how a  student thinks about and learns a subject. An example would be the Carnegie Cognitive Tutor. 
  
  Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS)
  
  "a digital technology that provides immediate and customized instruction and feedback to learners, designed to simulate a human tutor’s behavior and guidance." Groff,J., Personalized Learning: The State of the Field & Future Directions, Center for Curriculum Redesign, 2017.
  
  Natural Language ITS
  
  "Dialog based ITSs have the same main goal as traditional ITSs, which is to increase the level
  of engagement and learning gains. However, dialog based ITSs can use different dimensions of
  evaluation in classifying learner’s responses, comprehending learner’s contributions, modeling
  knowledge, and generating conversationally smooth tutorial dialogs. D’Mello and Graesser [113]
  conducted a study to describe how dialog based ITSs can be evaluated along these dimensions
  using AutoTutor as a case study." Alkhatlan, A., Kalita, J.K., Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Comprehensive Historical
  Survey with Recent Developments, International Journal of Computer Applications 181(43):1-20, March 2019
  
  
  Spoken Dialog
  
  "One advantage is in terms
  of self-explanation, which gives the student a better opportunity to construct his/her knowledge
  [115]. For instance, Hauptmann et al. showed that self-explanation happens more often in speech
  than in typed interaction [116]. Another advantage is that speech interaction provides a more
  accurate student model. Students use meta-communication strategies such as hedges, pauses, and
  disfluencies, which allow the tutor to infer more information regarding student understanding. The
  following will discuses some computer tutors, which implement spoken dialogue [114] [115].
  ITSPOKE is an ITS which uses spoken dialogue for the purpose of providing spoken feedback and
  correcting misconceptions [117]. The student and the system interact with each other in English
  to discus the student’s answers. ITSPOKE uses a microphone as an input device for the student’s
  speech and sends the signal to the Sphinx2 recognizer [118]. Litman et al. showed that ITSPOKE
  is more effective than typed dialogue; however, there was no evidence that ITSPOKE increases
  student learning [114]. In addition, it was clear that speech recognition errors did not decrease
  learning."Alkhatlan, A., Kalita, J.K., Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Comprehensive Historical
  Survey with Recent Developments, International Journal of Computer Applications 181(43):1-20, March 2019
  
  
  Affective Tutoring System
  
  "Affective Tutoring Systems (ATS) are ITSs that can recognize human emotions (sad, happy, frustrated,
  motivated, etc.) in different ways [119]. It is important to incorporate the emotions of
  students in the learning process because recent learning theories have established a link between
  emotions and learning, with the claim that cognition, motivation and emotion are the three components
  of learning [120][121]. Over the last few years, there has been a great amount of interest in
  computing the learner’s affective states in ITSs and studying how to respond to them in effective
  ways [122].
  Affective tutors use various techniques to enable computers to recognize, model, understand and
  respond to students’ emotions in an effective manner. Knowing the emotional states of the student
  provides information on the student’s psychological states and offers the possibility of responding
  appropriately [119]. A system can embed devices to detect a student’s affective or emotional states.
  These include PC cameras, PC microphones, special mouses, and neuro-headsets among others.
  These devices are responsible for identifying physical signals such as facial image, voice, mouse
  pressure, heart rate and stress level. These signals are then sent to the system to be processed.
  Consequently, the emotional state is obtained in real time. The ATS objective is to change a negative
  emotional state (e.g., confused) to a positive emotional state (e.g. committed) [72].
  In [123], the learners’ affective states are detected by monitoring their gross body language (body
  position and arousal) as they interact with the system. An automated body pressure measurement
  system is also used to capture the learner’s pressure. The system detects six affective states of the learner: confusion, flow, delight, surprise, boredom and neutral. If the system realizes that the
  student is bored, the tutor stimulates him by presenting engaging tasks. If frustration is detected,
  the tutor offers encouraging statements or corrects information that the learner is experiencing
  difficulty with. Experiments suggest that that boredom and flow might best be detected from body
  language although the face plays a significant role in conveying confusion and delight.
  Jraidi et al. present an ITS that acts differently when the student is frustrated [124]. For example,
  it may provide problems similar to ones in which the student has been successful to help the student.
  In case of boredom, the system provides an easier problem to motivate the student again or provides
  a more difficult problem if the problem seems too easy. Another approach used in the system to
  respond to student emotions integrates a virtual pedagogical agent called a learning companion
  to allow affective real time interaction with the learners. This agent can communicate with the
  learner as a study partner when solving problems, or provide encouragement and congratulatory
  messages, appearing to care about the learner. In other words, these agents can provide empathic
  responses which mirror the learner’s emotional states [72].
  Wolf and his colleagues also implement an empathetic learning companion that reflects the last
  expressed emotion of the learner as long as the emotion is not negative such as frustration or
  boredom [125][126]. The companion responds in full sentences providing feedback with voice and
  emotion. The presence of someone who appears to care can be motivating to the learners. Studies
  show that students who use the learning companion increased their math understanding and level
  of interest, and show reduced boredom. Another affective tutoring system that uses an empathetic
  companion to respond to learner emotion is a system that practices interview questions with users
  [127]. The system perceives the user’s emotion by measuring skin conductance and then takes
  appropriate actions. For instance, the agent displays concern for a user who is aroused and has a
  negatively valenced emotion, e.g., by saying “I am sorry that you seem to feel a bit bad about that
  question”. Their study shows that users receiving feedback with empathy are less stressed when
  asked interview questions."Alkhatlan, A., Kalita, J.K., Intelligent Tutoring Systems: A Comprehensive Historical
  Survey with Recent Developments, International Journal of Computer Applications 181(43):1-20, March 2019
  
  
  
  "information can be used to enhance learning by means of nudges that move
  students out of negative states such as boredom or frustration that inhibit learning
  into positive states such as engagement or enjoyment. Affective states can be
  detected through computational analysis of data extracted from speech, facial
  expressions, eye tracking, body language, physiological signals, or combinations
  of these (D'Mello and Kory, 2015). In the iTalk2Learn system, for example, a
  student’s affective state is determined through detection of keywords and prosodic
  features in their speech as they talk aloud when interacting with the system
  (Grawemeyer et al., 2015b). Such detailed student modelling can enable affect aware support for the student, which has been shown to contribute to reducing boredom and off-task behavior, with promising effects on learning
  (Grawemeyer et al.,, in press). "
   
  du Boulay, Ben; Poulovasillis, Alexandra; Holmes, Wayne and Mavrikis, Manolis (2018). Artificial Intelligence And Big Data Technologies To Close The Achievement Gap. In: Luckin, Rose ed. Enhancing Learning and Teaching with Technology. London: UCL Institute of Education Press, pp. 256–285
  
  "In his commentary of VanLehn’s review (2006) of ITS du Boulay (2006) noted that
  the affective, motivational and metacognitive state of the student has only “fleetingly”
  been addressed inmost learning systems. Traditional educational systems “have operated
  largely at the cognitive level and have assumed that the learner is already able to manage
  her own learning, is already in an appropriate affective state and also is already motivated
  to learn” (du Boulay et al. 2010, p.197).
  In recent years, recognizing the limitations of “cognition-only” approaches, researchers
  have begun to model key aspects of students’ motivation, affect, and meta-cognition with
  the aim of providing adaptive scaffolding for addressing differences in these areas (Desmarais
  and Baker 2012)." Essa, A., A possible future for next generation adaptive learning systems, Smart Learning Environments, 3, 16, 2016
   

  Game-based Tutoring Systems

  
  "The novelty of an ITS and its interactive components is quite engaging when they are used for
  short periods of time (e.g., hours), but can be monotonous and even annoying when a student is required to interact with an ITS for weeks or months [132]. The underlying idea for game based
  learning is that students learn better when they are having fun and engaged in the learning process.
  Game based tutoring systems engage learners to interact actively with the system, thereby
  making them more motivated to use the system for a longer time [133]. Whereas the ITS principles
  maximize learning, the game technologies maximize motivation. Instead of learning a subject in
  a conventional and traditional way, the students play an educational game which successfully
  integrates game strategies with curriculum-based contents. Although there is no overwhelming
  evidence supporting the effectiveness of educational game based systems over computer tutors,
  it has been found that educational games have advantages over traditional tutoring approaches
  [134][135]. Moreno and Mayer [136] summarize characteristics of educational games that make
  them enjoyable to operate. These are interactivity, reflection, feedback, and guidance.
  To enhance both engagement and learning, Rai and Beck implemented game-like elements in
  their math tutor [137]. The system provides a math learning environment and the students engage
  in a narrated visual story. Students help story characters solve the problem in order to move the
  story forward as shown in Figure 4. Students receive feedback and bug messages as when using a
  traditional tutor. The study found that students are more likely to interact with the version of the
  math tutor that contains game-like elements; however, the authors suggest adding more tutorial
  features to a game-like environment for higher levels of learning.
  Another tutoring system that uses an educational game approach is Writing Pal (W-Pal), which
  is designed to help students across multiple phases of the writing process [138]. Crystal Island is a
  narrative-centered learning environment in biology, where students attempt to discover the identity
  and source of an infectious disease on a remote island. The student (player) is involved in a scenario
  of meeting a patient and attempts to perform a diagnosis. The study of educational impact using
  a game based system by Lester at el. [139] found that students answer more questions correctly
  on the post-test than the pre-test, and this finding was statistically significant. Additionally, there
  was a strong relationship between learning outcomes, in-game problem solving and increased
  engagement"
• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00 Cookies and fingerprinting 1 plain 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00

  This page is still being processed. Please come back later!

  Rewrite : small text files that a Web browser places on a user’s computer system for the purposes of tracking and recording that user’s activities on a Web site
  
  "Cookies technology is not only embedded in the design of contemporary Web browsers, it is also used by major search engine companies to acquire information about users. In so far as these companies place cookies on users’ computer systems, without first getting their consent, they also seem to contribute to, and perhaps even exacerbate, at least one kind of technology-related bias—i.e., one that threatens values such as privacy and autonomy, while favoring values associated with surveillance and monitoring. However, since this kind of bias also applies to design issues affecting Web browsers, it is not peculiar to search engines per se." Tavani, H., Zimmer, M., Search Engines and Ethics, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Fall 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
  
  "1994 The HTTP cookie is developed.
  In its development stages, web users could fully restrict what data cookies could collect. However, data privacy measures were quickly removed, and users lost the power to control cookie data before the technology became widespread." Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  "1996 Ad networks (platforms that serve as brokers between groups of publishers and groups of advertisers) increasingly emerge, including Doubleclick (now owned by Google)."..."1998 Open Profiling Standard (OPS) is bought and rolled out by Microsoft. OPS could securely store and manage individuals’ personal information and credit card details, allowing user profiles to be exchanged between vendors." ... "2008
  Behavioral targeting begins to be integrated into real-time bidding, marking a crucial shift away from media content toward user behavior as key to targeting." Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  Cookies and Beyond
  
  "Of course, there are benefits to having services algorithmically rendered “more relevant”: cookies streamline site visits by storing user details, autofilling technologies can quickly complete registration forms, and filtering systems manage otherwise unmanageable amounts of content, all while the data needed for such user benefits is doubly harnessed to make platform profits. Despite (or indeed because of) its monetizable qualities, targeting creates a host of stark ethical problems in relation to identity articulation, collective privacy, data bias, raced and gendered discrimination and socioeconomic inequality." Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  "2020 Apple bans third-party cookies and Google pledges to do so by 2022, prompting debates on the so-called “cookie apocalypse.”
  Though welcomed by privacy-concerned users, third-party marketing companies such as Criteo experience a fall in share values and argue that the erasure of third-party cookies gives even more power to monopolistic first-party data trackers" Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  "The HTTP cookie is “a way of storing information on the user’s computer about a transaction between a user and a server that can be retrieved at a later date by the server.” Cookie tracking works by storing this text file on a user’s computer and sending it to either third- or first-party cookie trackers, who then use this data to attribute characteristics to the user in the form of demographic profiling and other profiling mechanisms. It is important to note that cookies ultimately only capture information that is decipherable through abstracted correlation and “pattern recognition.” These abstract identifiers are then translated back into marketing demographic profiles by data brokers: computational referents of correlational and networked positionality are converted into “man,” “woman,” and so on by complex pre- and post-cookie data categorizations. It is the rendering of cookie data into “traditional social parameters” that makes cookie tracking so common and profitable."Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  "Cookieless tracking refers to identifying and anticipating users through technologies alternative to the HTTP cookie. Common types of tracking have included Flash and canvas “fingerprinting,” which are seen as preferential to cookie tracking since fewer web users are aware of these technologies and they cannot be easily deleted. Third-party cookie aggregation is set to be banned by Google and other platforms by 2022. This is partially in response to privacy concerns: however, as the Electronic Frontier Foundation notes, Google is essentially replacing third-party cookie tracking with a new experimental tracking system that still works by “sorting their users into groups based on behavior, then sharing group labels with third-party trackers and advertisers around the web,” but in ways that users cannot necessarily know about or consent to.
  " Kant, T., Identity, Advertising, and Algorithmic Targeting: Or How (Not) to Target Your “Ideal User.” MIT Case Studies in Social and Ethical Responsibilities of Computing, 2021
  
  The easiest and most common method that Web developers use to passively collect user data is through cookies, which are relatively small files that store user-specific information such as preferences, account information, recent site activity, and the contents of a shopping cart. Your browser
  
  Spencer, Stephan. Google Power Search: The Essential Guide to Finding Anything Online With Google (pp. 111-112). Koshkonong. Kindle Edition.
  
  "More recently,
  Libert studied third-party HTTP requests on the top 1 mil-
  lion sites [31], providing view of tracking across the web. In
  this study, Libert showed that Google can track users across
  nearly 80% of sites through its various third-party domains.
  Web tracking has expanded from simple HTTP cookies to
  include more persistent tracking techniques. Soltani et al.
  rst examined the use of
  ash cookies to \respawn" or re-
  instantiate HTTP cookies [53], and Ayenson et al. showed
  how sites were using cache E-Tags and HTML5 localStor-
  age for the same purpose [6]. These discoveries led to media
  backlash [36, 30] and legal settlements [51, 10]. ............................
  Device ngerprinting is a persistent tracking technique
  which does not require a tracker to set any state in the user's browser. Instead, trackers attempt to identify users by a
  combination of the device's properties." Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "the tool is less e ective for obscure trackers
  (prominence < 0:1). In Section 6.6, we show that less prominent ngerprinting scripts are not blocked as frequently by
  blocking tools. This makes sense given that the block list
  is manually compiled and the developers are less likely to
  have encountered obscure trackers." Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "Cookie syncing, a workaround to the Same-Origin Policy,
  allows di erent trackers to share user identi ers with each
  other. Besides being hard to detect, cookie syncing enables
  back-end server-to-server data merges hidden from public
  view, which makes it a privacy concern.............Most third parties are involved in cookie syncing.
  .............
  More interestingly, we find that the vast majority of top
  third parties sync cookies with at least one other party: 45
  of the top 50, 85 of the top 100, 157 of the top 200, and
  460 of the top 1,000. This adds further evidence that cookie
  syncing is an under-researched privacy concern." Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "Canvas Fingerprinting
  Privacy threat. The HTML Canvas allows web appli-
  cation to draw graphics in real time, with functions to sup-
  port drawing shapes, arcs, and text to a custom canvas el-
  ement. In 2012 Mowery and Schacham demonstrated how
  the HTML Canvas could be used to ngerprint devices [37].
  Di erences in font rendering, smoothing, anti-aliasing, as
  well as other device features cause devices to draw the im-
  age di erently. This allows the resulting pixels to be used
  as part of a device ngerprint....Comparing our results with a 2014 study [1], we nd three
  important trends. First, the most prominent trackers have
  by-and-large stopped using it, suggesting that the public
  backlash following that study was e ective. Second, the
  overall number of domains employing it has increased con-
  siderably, indicating that knowledge of the technique has
  spread and that more obscure trackers are less concerned
  about public perception. As the technique evolves, the im-
  ages used have increased in variety and complexity, as we de-
  tail in Figure 12 in the Appendix. Third, the use has shifted
  from behavioral tracking to fraud detection, in line with the
  ad industry's self-regulatory norm regarding acceptable uses
  of ngerprinting.
  6.2 Canvas Font Fingerprinting
  Privacy threat. The browser's font list is very useful
  for device ngerprinting [12]. The ability to recover the list
  of fonts through Javascript or Flash is known, and existing
  tools aim to protect the user against scripts that do that [41,
  2]. But can fonts be enumerated using the Canvas interface?
  "Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "WebRTC-based fingerprinting
  Privacy threat. WebRTC is a framework for peer-to-
  peer Real Time Communication in the browser, and acces-
  sible via Javascript. To discover the best network path be-
  tween peers, each peer collects all available candidate ad-
  dresses, including addresses from the local network inter-
  faces (such as ethernet or WiFi) and addresses from the
  public side of the NAT and makes them available to the
  web application without explicit permission from the user.
  This has led to serious privacy concerns: users behind a
  proxy or VPN can have their ISP's public IP address ex-
  posed [59]. We focus on a slightly di erent privacy concern:
  users behind a NAT can have their local IP address revealed,
  which can be used as an identi er for tracking."Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "AudioContext Fingerprinting
  The scale of our data gives us a new way to systemati-
  cally identify new types of ngerprinting not previously re-
  ported in the literature. The key insight is that ngerprint-
  ing techniques typically aren't used in isolation but rather
  in conjunction with each other. ..................;This is conceptually similar to canvas ngerprinting: audio
  signals processed on di erent machines or browsers may have
  slight di erences due to hardware or software di erences be-
  tween the machines, while the same combination of machine
  and browser will produce the same output."Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/
  
  "Battery API Fingerprinting
  As a second example of bootstrapping, we analyze the
  Battery Status API, which allows a site to query the browser for the current battery level or charging status of a host
  device. Olejnik et al. provide evidence that the Battery
  API can be used for tracking [43]. The authors show how
  the battery charge level and discharge time have a sucient
  number of states and lifespan to be used as a short-term
  identi er. These status readouts can help identify users who
  take action to protect their privacy while already on a site.
  For example, the readout may remain constant when a user
  clears cookies, switches to private browsing mode, or opens
  a new browser before re-visiting the site. We discovered two
  ngerprinting scripts utilizing the API during our manual
  analysis of other ngerprinting techniques.The second script, http://js.ad-score.com/
  score.min.js, queries all properties of the BatteryManager
  interface, retrieving the current charging status, the charge
  level, and the time remaining to discharge or recharge. As
  with the previous script, these features are combined with
  other identifying features used to ngerprint a device."Englehardt, S., Narayanan, A., Online Tracking: A 1-million-site Measurement and Analysis, Extended version of paper at ACM CCS 2016, https://webtransparency.cs.princeton.edu/webcensus/

  
  Goliath : Cookies weren’t intended to be surveillance devices; rather,
  they were designed to make surfing the web easier. Websites
  don’t inherently remember you from visit to visit or even from
  click to click. Cookies provide the solution to this problem. Each
  cookie contains a unique number that allows the site to identify
  you. So now when you click around on an Internet merchant’s
  site, you keep telling it, “I’m customer #608431.” This allows the
  site to find your account, keep your shopping cart attached to you,
  remember you the next time you visit, and so on.
  Companies quickly realized that they could set their own
  cookies on pages belonging to other sites—with their permission
  and by paying for the privilege—and the third-party cookie was
  born. Enterprises like DoubleClick (purchased by Google in 2007)
  started tracking web users across many different sites. This is
  when ads started following you around the web. "
  
  Goliath : "Today, Internet surveillance is far more insistent than cookies.
  In fact, there’s a minor arms race going on. Your browser—yes,
  even Google Chrome—has extensive controls to block or delete
  cookies, and many people enable those features. DoNotTrackMe is
  one of the most popular browser plug-ins. The Internet
  surveillance industry has responded with “flash cookies”—
  basically, cookie-like files that are stored with Adobe’s Flash player
  and remain when browsers delete their cookies. To block those,
  you can install FlashBlock.
  But there are other ways to uniquely track you, with esoteric
  names like evercookies, canvas fingerprinting, and cookie
  synching. It’s not just marketers; in 2014, researchers found that
  the White House website used evercookies, in violation of its own
  privacy policy. I’ll give some advice about blocking web
  surveillance in Chapter 15.
  Cookies are inherently anonymous, but companies are
  increasingly able to correlate them with other information that
  positively identifies us. "
• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00 Old translators 1 This was the stub on Dec 6th plain 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00

  This page is still being processed. Please come back later!

  Translation is not the right way to learn a language: all experts will tell us that this could have been the way a long time ago, but modern didactics don't recommend it anymore.
  Nevertheless, if you can translate, you can get around having to learn the language altogether for most practical situations.
  Translation tools
  Two translation tools exist and can easily be used online (Google translate, deepl)
  Furthermore, it is now possible to use translation tools embedded inside the software to obtain rapidly a translation of a document respecting the original presentation.
  Translation in education
  Automatic translation tools can be used as soon as one has access to the internet. The adults use it in the context of work, so, unsurprisingly, the pupils learn how to use these tools as soon as they start learning languages.
  Teachers will of course
  
  
  ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
  "Translate This Page The Translate this page link only appears in search results next to pages that are in a foreign language and have no alternate version for the language you’ve specified in your search settings. When you click on it, Google will use its translation engine to convert the page text to your language. It’s rarely perfect—it struggles with idiomatic phrases and bad grammar in the source content—but you can usually get the gist of it.
  
  Spencer, Stephan. Google Power Search: The Essential Guide to Finding Anything Online With Google (p. 25). Koshkonong. Kindle Edition. "
• 1 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00 Similarities in life and distances in data 1 Wonder how a machine that only understands numbers can discover similarities in student behaviour? plain 2023-01-04T08:48:01+00:00
   

  This page is still being processed. Please come back later!

  Ethical guidelines on the use of artificial intelligence and data in teaching and learning for educators, European Commission, October 2022 AI-supported
  collaborative learning :
  Data on each learner’s work style and past performance is used to divide them into groups
  with the same ability levels or suitable mix of abilities and talents. AI systems provide
  inputs/suggestions on how a group is working together by monitoring the level of interaction
  between group members.
  
  Similarities in life, distances in data
  
  MIT : "The most common
  type of unsupervised learning is cluster analysis, where the
  algorithm looks for clusters of instances that are more similar
  to each other than they are to other instances in the
  data. These clustering algorithms often begin by guessing
  a set of clusters and then iteratively updating the clusters
  (dropping instances from one cluster and adding them to
  another) so as to increase both the within-cluster similarity
  and the diversity across clusters.
  A challenge for clustering is figuring out how to measure
  similarity. If all the attributes in a data set are numeric
  and have similar ranges, then it probably makes sense just
  to calculate the Euclidean distance (better known as the
  straight-line distance) between the instances (or rows).
  Rows that are close together in the Euclidean space are
  then treated as similar. A number of factors, however, can
  make the calculation of similarity between rows complex.
  In some data sets, different numeric attributes have different
  ranges, with the result that a variation in row values
  in one attribute may not be as significant as a variation of
  a similar magnitude in another attribute. In these cases,
  the attributes should be normalized so that they all have
  the same range. Another complicating factor in calculating
  similarity is that things can be deemed similar in many
  different ways. Some attributes are sometimes more important
  than other attributes, so it might make sense to weight some attributes in the distance calculations, or it
  may be that the data set includes nonnumeric data. These
  more complex scenarios may require the design of bespoke
  similarity metrics for the clustering algorithm to use."...... "is.
  An unsupervised clustering algorithm will look for
  groups of rows that are more similar to each other than
  they are to the other rows in the data. Each of these groups
  of similar rows defines a cluster of similar instances. For
  instance, an algorithm can identify causes of a disease or
  disease comorbidities (diseases that occur together) by
  looking for attribute values that are relatively frequent
  within a cluster. The simple idea of looking for clusters of
  similar rows is very powerful and has applications across
  many areas of life. Another application of clustering rows
  is making product recommendations to customers. If a
  customer liked a book, song, or movie, then he may enjoy
  another book, song, or movie from the same cluster."
  video
  
  MIT: "The standard data science approach to this type of
  analysis is to frame the problem as a clustering task. Clustering
  involves sorting the instances in a data set into subgroups containing similar instances. Usually clustering
  requires an analyst to first decide on the number of subgroups
  she would like identified in the data. This decision
  may be based on domain knowledge or informed by project
  goals. A clustering algorithm is then run on the data
  with the desired number of subgroups input as one of the
  algorithms parameters. The algorithm then creates that
  number of subgroups by grouping instances based on the
  similarity of their attribute values. Once the algorithm has
  created the clusters, a human domain expert reviews the
  clusters to interpret whether they are meaningful. In the
  context of designing a marketing campaign, this review
  involves checking whether the groups reflect sensible customer
  personas or identifies new personas not previously
  considered.....As is true of all data science projects, one of the biggest
  challenges with clustering is to decide which attributes to
  include and which to exclude so as to get the best results.............One of the advantages of clustering as an analytics
  approach is that it can be applied to most types of data.
  Because of its versatility, clustering is often used as a dataexploration
  tool during the data-understanding stage of
  many data science projects. Also, clustering is also useful
  across a wide range of domains. For example, it has been
  used to analyze students in a given course in order to identify
  groups of students who need extra support or prefer
  160 Chapter 5
  different learning approaches. It has also been used to
  identify groups of similar documents in a corpus, and in
  science it has been used in bio-informatics to analyze gene
  sequences in microarray analysis."
  
  "How do we operationalize diversity in a selection task? If we had a distance
  function between pairs of candidates, we could measure the average distance
  between selected candidates. As a strawman, let’s say we use the Euclidean
  distance based on the GPA and interview score. If we incorporated such a diversity
  criterion into the objective function, it would result in a model where the GPA is
  weighted less. This technique has the advantage of being blind: we didn’t explicitly
  consider the group membership, but as a side-effect of insisting on diversity of
  the other observable attributes, we have also improved demographic diversity.
  However, a careless application of such an intervention can easily go wrong: for
  example, the model might give weight to attributes that are completely irrelevant
  to the task.
  More generally, there are many possible algorithmic interventions beyond
  picking different thresholds for different groups. In particular, the idea of a
  similarity function between pairs of individuals is a powerful one, and we’ll see
  other interventions that make use of it. But coming up with a suitable similarity
  function in practice isn’t easy: it may not be clear which attributes are relevant,
  how to weight them, and how to deal with correlations between attributes" FML